“Mission” Impossible 2

Mau merasakan tekanan udara yang sangat dahsyat? Bawalah fantasi bercinta Anda ke toilet dalam pesawat terbang. Ketegangan dari adegan bercinta ini telah dibangun sejak Anda dan dia menyelinap diam-diam ke dalam toilet. Maka, biarkan dia masuk lebih dulu ke toilet, lima menit kemudian barulah Anda menyusulnya.

Tekniknya “Anda duduk di atas toilet, sementara dia duduk menunggangi Anda,” begitu papar Paul Joannides, penulis Guide To Getting It On!. Minta dia untuk memegang dengan lembut Mr. Happy, dan mengarahkan untuk memasuki tubuhnya. Kuncilah posisi ini dengan menyilangkan kedua kakinya pada pinggang Anda. Pinta dia melakukan gerakan menekan ke bawah untuk menambah derajat kenikmatan bercinta.” Untuk menghemat waktu bercinta dalam toilet, maka ketika Anda berdua masih duduk di kursi pesawat, cobalah saling membangkitkan hasrat lebih dulu. Caranya, Anda bisa saling menyentuh area intim berdua, secara sembunyi-sembunyi di balik selimut. Tapi, jangan terlalu bersemangat, agar tak terlihat penumpang lain atau pramugari yang mondar-mandir.

Kenikmatan bagi dia: Walau posisi ini termasuk seks kilat alias quickie, namun amat menggairahkan karena tubuh Anda dan dia saling lekat bersentuhan. Anda dapat leluasa menciumi dirinya. Dia juga bisa menyentuhkan payudara pada dada Anda yang bidang. Dijamin, listrik cinta akan menyengat hebat! Selain itu, bagian klitorisnya da[at bergesekan dengan bawah perut Anda. Otot-otot vagina juga dapat melakukan gerakan mengunci dan melepas saat penetrasi tengah berlangsung. Ini semua akan menambah intens acara bercinta Anda.

Kenikmatannya buat Anda: Berdua bisa saling memandang dengan penuh cinta. Dia bisa melihat ekspresi wajah Anda saat meraih orgasme. Dan tentu saja, hal ini akan membangkitkan hasrat kelelakiannya saat melihatnya sangat menikmati permainannya. Selain itu, karena seluruh berat tubuhnya bertumpu pada penis Anda maka penetrasi si dia pun terasa lebih dalam, keras dan kencang. Si Mr. Happy dapat keluar-masuk ?rumah? dengan leluasa tanpa takut ?terpeleset?.

Pererat hubungan kerja Bila Anda dan si dia bekerja di satu kantor yang sama, fantasi bercinta ini bisa diuji-coba. Bagaimana caranya? Misalnya, Anda bisa melakukannya di ruangan tempat menyimpan file dengan pintu terkunci. Posisi ini menampilkan gaya bercinta Anda intim dari belakang tubuhnya yang memunggungi Anda, sehingga bisa dilakukan di ruangan sempit.

Tekniknya Lou Paget, pakar seks dan penulis How To Be a Great Lover punya teorinya: “Anda harus berdiri dengan tubuh sedikit condong ke depan, memberi ruang masuk pada tubuhnya yang memunggungi Anda. Anda memeluk pinggangnya dan menstimulasi dari belakang. Agar penetrasi lebih mudah, dia bisa mengangkat satu kaki dan meletakkannya pada betis Anda. Sehingga bila dilihat posisi tubuh Anda dan dia seperti membentuk huruf X.”

Kenikmatan padanya: “Penetrasi gaya ini membuat Mr. Happy dengan mudah menyentuh G-spotnyaa yang berada di dinding depan vagina,” tutur Paget. Sedangkan pelukan tangan Anda yang erat pada pinggangnya membuat Anda lebih nyaman bergerak. Tapi ingat, Anda jangan bergerak terlalu banyak, cukup gerakkan pinggul Anda seperti hendak membentuk angka 8. Karena posisi ini membuat Anda tak bisa saling menatap, hangatkanlah acara bercinta dengan saling merayu. Dan tentu saja, posisi ini sungguh membutuhkan rasa saling percaya dan kemesraan mendalam.

Kenikmatannya buat Anda: Tentu saja dia bisa mengontrol seberapa dalam dan seberapa keras penetrasi yang harus dilakukannya. Jari Anda bisa bebas mengeksplorasi bagian dada Anda. Dan keuntungan yang paling besar, menurut Paget, dengan posisi berdiri, lelaki bisa ereksi lebih lama. “Dia bisa memberi Anda kesenangan lebih lama, dan ketika mencapai puncak bercinta, dijamin benar-benar eksplosif!”

Basahi cinta berdua dengan mandi bareng. Busa sabun yang lembut, wangi sabun yang tercium serta hangatnya air yang melingkupi tubuh Anda berdua membuat banyak wanita berfantasi bercinta di bath tub bersama kekasihnya. Tapi ternyata menurut banyak orang yang telah mencobanya, posisi ini katanya kurang nyaman. “Soalnya banyak pasangan yang mencoba bercinta di bathtub membuat kesalahan. Mereka terlalu saling berdekatan karena ingin mencium bibir pasangannya,” Jo-Anne Baker mengkoreksi kesalahan. “Bercinta di bathtub berarti bercinta di tempat sempit. Dan karena Anda saling berhadapan maka sebenarnya akan menciptakan tekanan dan desakan yang lebih keras. Dijamin, Anda tak akan terpeleset. Dan acara bercinta pun jadi lebih intens.

Tekniknya: Anda duduk dengan menekuk kedua kaki. Lalu dudukkan dia di atas kedua belah paha Anda, saling berhadapan. Tekuk kedua belah betisnya di sisi tubuh Anda. Bila ingin saling menekan gunakan kedua belah tangan untuk berpegangan.

Kenikmatannya, sudah deh, jangan ditanya. Lakukan saja, segera ya?!

“Mission” Impossible

Jangan pernah takut punya fantasi bercinta! Tapi akan lebih baik lagi bila Anda menguasai tekniknya lebih dulu. Fantasi pada posisi atau gaya, mungkin sudah biasa. Bagaimana kalau fantasi pada tempat “liar” untuk bercinta? Mari kita cari tahu bersama. Setelah itu, prakteknya terserah Anda. Berani?

Ayo akui saja, Anda pasti pernah punya imajinasi tentang adegan bercinta heboh tapi tak punya nyali untuk mempraktekkannya bersama si dia, bukan? Itu karena dalam khayalan Anda bercinta dengan dia di tempat yang menurut banyak orang tak memungkinkan untuk memadu cinta. Seperti misalnya, bercinta di elevator atau lift. Walau cuma sekelebat ternyata Anda pernah ingin memadu asmara di bilik lift yang sempit, tapi setelah itu Anda bingung sendiri karena tak tahu bagaimana tekniknya agar bisa cepat mencapai orgasme secepat naik-turunnya lift? Atau mungkin Anda ingin sekali bergabung jadi member mile-high club dengan bercumbu di toilet pesawat? Rasanya di antara kita, wanita Cosmo tak perlu lagi saling punya rahasia tentang fantasi bercinta, bukan? Nah, itu sebabnya, kali ini Cosmo mencoba mengupas lima posisi fantasi bercinta paling impossible alias tidak mungkin yang kerap muncul di benak kita.

Para ahli kami akan menjelaskan dengan gamblang kenikmatan dan tingkat kesulitan dari setiap posisi bercinta tersebut. Dan patut diingat sebelum Anda dan dia mempraktekkannya, tak seorang pun berpendapat posisi bercinta ini sangat mudah. Asal tahu saja, posisi-posisi ?seru? ini memang membutuhkan perencanaan, dedikasi dan stamina prima dari Anda berdua. Tapi yang jelas, begitu Anda berdua saling bersentuhan, sebuah sensasi kemesraan baru akan tercipta. Dan ingat ya, setelah itu Anda harus berterima kasih kepada kami!

Cinta Kilat di elevator. Ternyata, fantasi bercinta di dalam elevator atau lift paling sering muncul di benak kita. Sekaligus posisi ini dianggap paling fun dan mudah untuk merasakannya. Lift yang bergerak naik turun akan mempercepat detak jantung Anda berdua. Dan tentu saja yang membuat posisi ini jadi ?mendebarkan? lantaran kemungkinan seseorang di luar sana memencet tombol lift dan ?menangkap basah? Anda berdua. Tapi justru di situlah letak passion-nya, kita tak pernah tahu lift akan berhenti di lantai berapa.

Tekniknya “Anda dan dia harus mengatur posisi tubuh sedemikian rupa agar mencapai orgasme dengan cepat,” kata Jo-Anne Baker, penulis Sex Tips. “Anda berdua cuma punya waktu yang amat terbatas untuk saling mencapai klimaks. Jadi si dia harus berdiri tegak. Lalu lingkarkan kedua lengan Anda pada lehernya. Kaitkan salah satu paha Anda pada kakinya untuk menopang berat tubuh. Lalu luruskan paha Anda yang lain agar ibu jari kaki bisa menekan tombol ?closed? pada pintu lift. Anda harus bisa orgasme secepat kilat karena otot paha tak bisa menahan tarikan seperti ini lebih dari lima menit!”

Kenikmatannya, salah satu paha Anda yang harus lurus menjangkau tombol lift agar pintu tetap tertutup, akan membentuk semacam ceruk pada area intim Anda. Hal ini membuat Mr. Happy dengan mudah menjangkau sekitar leher rahimnya. Akibatnya, ?topi? si Mr. Happy yang merupakan bagian paling sensitif itu, terstimulasi dengan baik. “Anda bisa merasakan saat otot-otot cinta dia menjepit, tapi juga membuatnya gembira ria seperti mendapat kado sangat indah!” tutur Baker.

Kenikmatan pasangan Anda, kedua belah paha Anda yang mengencang karena harus menjaga keseimbangan tubuh, justru menciptakan tekanan sensasional pada area klitoris. Jadi Anda tak perlu terlalu banyak bergerak untuk membawanya ke puncak seks kilat. “Karena harus bergerak serba cepat, maka Anda berdua tak perlu membuka seluruh busana yang dikenakan,” begitu saran Baker. “Anda cukup mengangkat rok Anda atau membuka sebagian celana panjang yang dikenakan. Bercinta dengan tetap mengenakan busana justru menciptakan gesekan-gesekan sensasional yang tak terduga nikmatnya.”

Bergetar di mesin cuci. Cobalah rasakan getaran cinta berdua dengan memadu asmara di atas mesin cuci baju yang sedang bekerja. Adegan bercinta yang dibutuhkan cukup posisi missionary, yaitu dia di atas, Anda di bawah. Dijamin, getaran mesin cuci yang tengah berputar itu akan menambah dahsyat getar cinta berdua!

Tekniknya Tracey Cox, penulis Hot Sex berpendapat, “Dudukkan dia di atas mesin cuci, sedangkan Anda berdiri menghadapnya. Kalau Anda tak terlalu tinggi, mungkin perlu sedikit berjinjit atau memakai bangku kecil agar bisa mencapainya. Lalu, buka lebar-lebar kedua belah pahanya dan minta panduannya untuk memasuki area Mrs. Cheerful. Begitu milik Anda sudah tiba di ?rumah?, lingkarkan kedua kakinya pada punggung Anda dan kuncilah erat-erat dengan menyilangkan kedua mata kaki Anda.” Selain itu, supaya acara bercinta lebih empuk, lebih hangat bentangkan lebih dulu selembar handuk di atas mesin cuci. Kain handuk yang tebal itu pun juga berfungsi jadi peredam getaran mesin cuci, sehingga gerakan Anda berdua terasa lebih halus. Dan cinta berdua pun tambah banyak busanya!

Kenikmatannya, “Menyilangkan kedua mata kaki berefek mengencangkan kanal vagina,” jelas Cox. “Inilah cara tepat untuk membawa Anda masuk lebih dalam dan lebih intens lagi ke padanya. Apalagi bila properti Anda berukuran kecil, teknik ini sangat baik dipraktekkan.” Posisi ini juga sangat nyaman buatnya, karena dia cukup berbaring tenang dan menanti datangnya serangan cinta. Dijamin, Anda berdua akan bersama-sama mencapai puncak asmara. Selain itu, untuk memperbesar kesempatan Mr. Happy menemukan area G-spot Anda, taruhlah kedua belah pahanya pada bahu Anda dan minta dia memeganginya.

Kenikmatannya Pasangan Anda, walau Anda ada di atas yang berarti lebih banyak ?bekerja?, tapi sebenarnya posisi ini membuatnya lebih santai. Getaran mesin cuci akan menstimulasi Anda berdua dan Anda pun tak perlu mendorong ?senjata? keras-keras. Maka, posisi ini membuat Anda berdua dengan mudah saling meraih bintang di langit cinta.

Keperkasaan = Kesabaran

Banyak lelaki yang ingin perkasa, dan lebih menggunakan kekuatan fisiknya sebagai aparat bercinta. Padahal, ukuran Happy, kekuatan otot, kemampuan menahan ejakulasi, kadang bersifat mekanistis. Ada ratusan “jurus” lain, yang dapat membuat Anda jadi perkasa dan romantis, tanpa harus membangga-banggakan ukuran Mr Happy.

“bercinta itu sebenarnya lebih merupakan olah-rasa, daripada olah-tubuh,” demikianlah pepatah Cina berkata. dan karena berkaitan dengan olahrasa, tubuh menjadi faktor yang kesekian. Teknik untuk membangkitkan suasana menjadi lebih penting dari apa pun. Karena seks lebih bersifat visual dan suara, fokuslah di dua hal itu untuk memenangkan pertarungannya. Jika ingin tahu, cobalah pahami hal-hal berikut ini.

Walau tak terlihat mata tapi otak adalah bagian paling sensual dari zona erotis Anda,? tutur Steve Capellini, salah satu penulis Massage for Dummies, a Reference for the Rest of Us (IDG). Arahkan si dia untuk menjelajah batok kepala pelindung otak Anda dengan ujung jarinya. Dijamin, Anda merasa nyaman untuk mulai bercinta.

Aura seks berupa bisikan lembut di telinganya bisa membuat dia langsung on. Coba, hati siapa takkan bergetar saat dia berbisik lembut, “Your body?s so beautiful”, atau “I know you want it, honey!”. Sari Locker, penulis The Complete Idiot?s Guide to Amazing Sex, berkata hal wajar bila Anda bersuara saat memadu cinta. Namun, akan lebih baik bila Anda dan dia berdiskusi lebih dulu ?bunyi-bunyian? apa saja yang boleh terdengar saat make love.

Belailah wajahnya, lama di dagu dan sedikit di pangkal leher. “Kemudian, Anda bisa bermain-main dengan rambutnya. Membelai dan mengangkat tinggi rambut agar leher jenjang dia bisa terlihat,” tutur Cox. “Kemudian Anda bisa bebas leluasa mengeksplorasi entah menghembuskan napas hangat di lehernya, lalu menciuminya.”

Jangan ragu untuk melakukan ?pekerjaan tangan? dengan cara mencium jari-jemarinya satu demi satu. “Rasanya dijamin sangat erotik karena Anda bisa melihat ekspresi wajahnya yang penuh cinta,” papar Locker. “Sepertinya dia berkata: “Jika kamu melakukan itu, saya tak akan sabar menunggu sampai ciuman itu mencapai Ms. Cheerful-ku!”

Puting dan areola (area coklat di seputar putting) adalah daerah sensitif, begitu pula bagian bawahnya. ?Beberapa wanita merasa geli ketika puting payudaranya disentuh. Tapi cobalah menstimulasi bagian bawahnya, dijamin langsung ?semangat?,? kata Cox. Anda bisa menstimulasi area ini dengan lidah, jari, bibir atau bahkan ujung Mr. Happy Anda.

Anda harus menganggap pusar dan ibu jari itu bukan tabu untuk ?dieksplorasi?. Hisap ibu jari tangannya, dan jilati pusarnya, sampai dia mengeluh dan melenguh manja. Ini akan membuat Anda jati pejantan yang sungguh tangguh.

Mainkan jari Anda di bagian ujung klitorisnya. Beri dia sentuhan keras-lembut, sampai Anda rasakan kebasahannya. Lalu, susupkan jari Anda dengan lembut di antara labia-nya, hingga memasuki Ms. Cheerful. Dia akan seperti orang gila!

Selangkang atau perineum adalah daerah highly sensitive karena berdekatan dengan anus yang dikelilingi puluhan urat syaraf. “Wanita akan terangsang bila distimulasi seputar perineumnya,” kata Locker. “Anda bisa melakukannya dengan lidah atau jari. Dijamin rasanya jadi lebih menggetarkan.”

Stimulasi yang tepat pada ?properti? utamanya ini adalah diberi lip service. Lakukanlah sebagai bagian dari foreplay. Anda bisa mulai aktivitas itu dengan lidah. Antara lain bergerak menjilat naik-turun di seputar ?properti? utama itu.

Nah, setelah itu, rasanya Anda tak perlu penuntun lagi. Sebuah seni ranjang yang sempurna, siap untuk Anda puncaki. Dan, Anda akan dapat rasakan perbedaannya. keperkasaan tidak hanya lewat 6 dangkal dan 3 dalam kan?

 

Saat tepat ngajak “begituan”

“Aku lagi ndak mood neh”, ucapan yang jelas tak ingin Anda dengar dari pasangan saat mengajaknya bercinta. Banyak pria mengeluhkan pasangan mereka yang sering menolak saat diajak berhubungan seks. Cobalah untuk mengerti pasangan Anda, dan tak ada salahnya mengetahui kapankah pasangan Anda mengalami masa horniest.

Berikut beberapa kondisi yang harus Anda tahu, untuk mengajaknya intim, dan atau menciptakan suasana yang dapat membuat dia bergairah berintim ria.

Setelah pertengkaran. Konsep make-up sex bukanlah sebuah mitos. Berdebat sengit dengan kekasih kadang membuat Anda sangat marah membuat darah Anda naik, detak jantung berdetak cepat. Dan saat Anda berdua telah melepaskan semua beban yang mengganjal dada Anda, tak ada hal yang lebih baik selain meredakan amarah dengan merangkulnya, menciuminya penuh gairah dan biarkan emosi Anda yang do the rest. Mungkin kelakukan Anda membuatnya tak nyaman bahkan membuatnya menangis, it’s ok. Beri dia waktu menenangkan diri, hapus air matanya dan bercintalah dengannya.

Suasana bahagia. Seperti halnya kemarahan dan kesedihan, kebahagiaan yang berlebihan juga membuat wanita merasa mood untuk bercinta. Saat pasangan mendapat pekerjaan baru, dapat promosi di kantornya, lulus dengan predikat terbaik, mengetahui bakal mendapat momongan, apapun bentuk kebahagiaan tersebut, wanita memiliki gairah dan semangat positif yang berlebihan. So kenapa tak mencoba menggunakan gairah tersebut untuk mengajaknya bercinta.

Stress. Memang bukan hal biasa untuk bercinta, stress selalu dianggap meningkatkan tekanan emosi sampai ke tingkat extrem. Disisi lain stres akan meningkatkan libido wanita. Tak ada salahnya Anda mencoba memberikan kehangatan untuk meredakan keteganganya yang dialaminya dan memanfaatkan naiknya intensitas libidonya. Seks juga meredakan sakit kepala yang dialami pasangan karena stress yang dideritanya.

Cemburu. Wanita selalu merasa terbakar jika mendengar kekasihnya bermain dengan wanita lain. Satu hal yang sering hinggap di benak pasangan Anda adalah: dia selalu berpikir jika Anda adalah miliknya, bukan milik wanita lain. Jadikan apa yang ada dalam benaknya menjadi sebuah keyakinan jika memang Anda adalah miliknya. Jangan membuatnya bingung dan sakit, manfaatkan moment kecemburuan ini dengan melakukan hubungan cinta yang dasyat dengannya.

Saat ovulasi. Wanita sangat mudah horny saat berovulasi. So, kira-kira dua minggu dari datang bulan terakhirnya adalah saat yang tepat mengajaknya bercinta. Tapi bukan hal yang mudah jika pasangan Anda termasuk dalam kategori datang bulan tak teratur.

Pesta. Wanita cenderung mudah horny dalam sebuah situasi romantis. Tak ada salahnya mengajaknya berdansa dengan musik-musik lembut, menuangkannya sedikit minuman memabukkan, dan mulai mencumbunya dengan penuh kelembutan. Dan biarkan dia mencair dalam pelukan Anda.

Film romantis. Tak semua wanita menyukai film-film panas, namun film-film dengan adegan seks yang dibintangi Brad Pitt atau Antonio Banderas bisa membuat mereka bergairah. So tak ada salahnya menyewa film romatis favorit mereka dan jangan pernah lewatkan malam-malam romantis dengan pasangan Anda.

Long-distance love. Cinta jarak jauh memiliki potensi besar untuk meningkatkan gairah kehidupan seksual Anda. Berpisah dengan pasangan beberapa hari atau bahkan beberapa minggu membuat Anda dan pasangan saling merindukan satu sama lain. Jarak hanya menghubungkan Anda via komunikasi telepon, so saat Anda dan pasangan bertemu luapan dan gairah cinta yang selama ini Anda pendam akan meledak dan bukan tak mungkin Anda akan mengalami percintaan yang benar-benar luar biasa.

Lama menyendiri. Semakin lama wanita tak melakukan seks, semakin menumpuk gairah seksualnya. So jika Anda menjalin hubungan dengan wanita yang telah lama hidup sendiri bisa dipastikan Andalah yang akan menjadi oase dari kehausan seks nya selama ini.

Kreatif. Jika pasangan Anda adalah pribadi yang kreatif, misalnya senang berkreasi di dapur, coba gunakan kesempatan ini untuk merayunya dan melakukan seks yang berbeda dari seks rutin Anda. So lain waktu, saat dia sedang menyiapkan makan malam, menyelinaplah ke dapur dan cobalah sedikit pre-dinner sex.

Hangar

A hangar is an enclosed structure designed to hold aircraft in protective storage. Most modern hangars are built of metal, but wood and concrete are other materials commonly used. The word hangar comes from a northern French dialect, and means “cattle pen.”

Hangars protect aircraft from weather and ultraviolet light. Hangars may be used as an enclosed repair shop or, in some cases, an assembly area. Additionally, hangars keep secret aircraft hidden from satellites or spyplanes.

Aircraft storage halls on carriers are also known as hangars.

History

In 1909, Louis Bleriot crash-landed on a northern French farm in Les Baraques (between Sangatte and Calais) and rolled his monoplane into the farmer’s cattle pen. At the time, Bleriot was in a race to be the first man to cross the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft, so he set up headquarters in the unused shed. After returning home, Bleriot called REIDsteel, the maker of the cattle pen, and ordered three “hangars” for personal use. REIDsteel continues to make hangars and hangar parts.

The Wright brothers stored and repaired their airplane in a wooden hangar they constructed in 1902 at Kill Devil Hills in North Carolina for their glider. After completing design and construction of the Wright Flyer in Ohio, the brothers returned to Kill Devil Hill only to find their hangar damaged. They repaired the structure and constructed a new workshop while they waited for the Flyer to be shipped.

One of the largest hangars built was for the former Soviet Air Force. It has now been converted to house a rain forest. Other notable large hangars are Suvarnabhumi Airport in Thailand measuring 885x295x115 feet, NAS Sunnyvale in the United States measuring 1,133x308x198 feet and the Filton Aerodrome in England measuring 1,155x115x263 feet.

Airship Hangar

Airship hangars (also referred to as “airship sheds”) are generally larger than conventional airplane hangars, particularly in terms of overall height. Most early airships used hydrogen gas to provide them with sufficient buoyancy for flight, so their hangars had to provide protection from stray sparks in order to prevent the flammable gas from exploding. Hangars that held multiple craft of this type were at risk from chain-reaction explosions. For this reason, most hangars for hydrogen-based airships were sized to house only one or two such craft.

During the “Golden Age” of airship travel, mooring masts and sheds were constructed to build and house airships on their world travels. The British government built a shed in Karachi for the R101, and the Brazilian government built one in Rio de Janeiro[1] for the German Zeppelins. The largest airship hangar, at the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in Akron, Ohio, was used for the construction of the USS Akron (ZRS-4) and USS Macon (ZRS-5). Its length was 1,175 ft (358 m) and its roof soared to 200 ft (61 m).

The US Navy established a total of ten “lighter-than-air” (LTA) bases across the United States during World War II as part of the coastal defense plan. Hangars at these bases are some of the world’s largest freestanding wood structures. Seven of the original seventeen hangars still exist, with one of them now housing the Tillamook Air Museum in Tillamook, Oregon.

Sheds built for rigid airships survive at Moffett Field, Lakehurst Naval Air Station, Base Aérea de Santa Cruz (Rio de Janeiro)[2], and Cardington, Bedfordshire

 

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- CAIRNGORM MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 01
- CAIRNGORM MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 02
- CAIRNGORM MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 03
- CAIRNGORM MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 04
- CAIRNGORM MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 05
- CAIRNGORM MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 06
- CAIRNGORM MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 07
- CAIRNGORM MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 08

- FARTMOOR MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 01
- FARTMOOR MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 02
- FARTMOOR MOUNTAIN – ENGLAND 03

- DUDH KHOSI MOUNTAIN – NEPAL 01
- DUDH KHOSI MOUNTAIN – NEPAL 02
- DUDH KHOSI MOUNTAIN – NEPAL 03

- GOKYO – NEPAL 01
- GOKYO – NEPAL 02
- GOKYO – NEPAL 03
- GOKYO – NEPAL 04

DATA GUA SULAWESI SELATAN

Gua Vertikal

1. Lubang Leang Pute

Lebar Mulut Gua : 50 – 80 m

Kedalaman Gua : 200 – 270 m
Kondisi Gua : Vertikal (Long Pitch), Teras
Jenis Batuan : Batu Gamping
Lokasi : Dusun Pattiro, Desa Labuaja, Kecamatan Bantimurung, Kabupaten Maros.

Cara pencapaian lokasi : Menggunakan kendaraan umum jurusan Makassar – Maros (Rp 3.000-/ orang), Maros – Nahung (Rp 4.000-/orang)

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2011-32, Camba

2. Lubang Dinosaurus

Lebar Mulut Gua : 80-100 m

Kedalaman Gua : 150 – 180 m

Kondisi Gua : Vertikal (Multi Pitch), Teras

Jenis Batuan : Batu Gamping

Lokasi : Dusun Pattiro, Desa Labuaja, Kecamatan Bantimurung, Kabupaten Maros.

Cara pencapaian lokasi : Menggunakan kendaraan umum jurusan Makassar-Maros (Rp 3.000-/orang), Maros-Nahung (Rp 4.000-/orang)

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2011-32, Camba

3. Lubang K20

Lebar Mulut Gua : 2 – 5 m

Kedalaman Gua : 130 – 160 m

Kondisi Gua : Vertikal (Multi Pitch), Teras

Jenis Batuan : Batu Gamping

Lokasi : Kappang, Km.57, Kabupaten Maros.

Cara pencapaian lokasi : Menggunakan kendaraan umum jurusan Makassar-Maros (Rp 3.000-/orang), Maros-Kappang (Rp 3.500-/orang)

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar MAROS

4. Lubang Tomanangna

Lebar Mulut Gua : 30 – 50 m

Kedalaman Gua : 190 m

Kondisi Gua : Vertikal (long Pitch)

Jenis Batuan : Batu Gamping

Lokasi : Dusun Langko,Kappang, Kabupaten Maros.

Cara pencapaian lokasi : Menggunakan kendaraan umum jurusan Makassar-Maros (Rp 3.000-/orang), Maros-Kappang (Rp 3.500-/orang)

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar MAROS

5. Lubang Kapa-kapasa

Lebar Mulut Gua : 10 – 15 m

Kedalaman Gua : 210 m

Kondisi Gua : Vertikal (Multi Pitch),

Jenis Batuan : Batu Gamping

Lokasi : Dusun Kapa-kapasa, Kabupaten Maros.

Cara pencapaian lokasi : Menggunakan kendaraan umum jurusan Makassar-Maros (Rp 3.000-/orang), Maros-Kappang (Rp 3.500-/orang)

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2011-32, Camba

6. Lubang Lantang Huu

Lebar Mulut Gua : 5 – 8 m

Kedalaman Gua : 50 m

Kondisi Gua : Vertikal (Long Pitch)

Jenis Batuan : Batu Gamping

Lokasi : Leang Rakko, Kabupaten Maros.

Cara pencapaian lokasi : Menggunakan kendaraan umum jurusan Makassar-Maros (Rp 3.000-/orang), Maros-Pangia (Rp 3.000-/orang)

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar MAROS

7. Lubang Baba’

Lebar Mulut Gua : 2 – 3 m

Kedalaman Gua : 40 m

Kondisi Gua : Vertikal (Long Pitch)

Jenis Batuan : Batu Gamping

Lokasi : Desa Pangia, Kec. Simbang, Kab. Maros.

Cara pencapaian lokasi : Menggunakan kendaraan umum jurusan Makassar-Maros (Rp 3.000-/orang), Maros-Pangia (Rp 3.000-/orang)

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar MAROS

8. Gua Padaelok

Lebar Mulut Gua : 5 – 10 m

Kedalaman Gua : 54 m

Kondisi Gua : Vertikal (Long Pitch + Slab 200), Teras

Jenis Batuan : Batu Gamping

Lokasi : Desa Pangia, Kec.Simbang, Kab.Maros.

Cara pencapaian lokasi : Menggunakan kendaraan umum jurusan Makassar-Maros (Rp 3.000-/orang), Maros-Pangia (Rp 3.000-/orang)

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar MAROS

B. Gua Horisontal

1. Gua Patta

Jenis Gua : Horizontal (Slab ±300)

Kondisi Gua : Berair

Panjang Total Gua : ± 950 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

etak Administratif : Leang Rakko, Desa Pangia, Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Pangia (Rp. 6.000-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3 jam.

Base Camp : Leang Rakko, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan Kapolres Maros).

Sumber Air : Dalam Gua

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

2. Gua Sammani

Jenis Gua : Horisontal

Kondisi Gua : Kering

Panjang Total Gua : ± 400 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Letak Administratif : Leang Rakko, Desa Pangia, Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Pangia (Rp. 6.000-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3 jam.

Base Camp : Leang Rakko, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan KapolresMaros).

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

3. Gua Suleman

Jenis Gua : Horisontal

Kondisi Gua : Kering-Berlumpur-Berair

Panjang Total Gua : ± 850 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Letak Administratif : Dusun Pattunuang, Desa Samanggi Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Pattunuang Asue (Rp. 5.000-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3 jam.

Base Camp : Bislab, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan Kapolres Maros).

Sumber Air : Sungai Pattunnuang

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

4. Gua Saripa

Jenis Gua : Horisontal

Kondisi Gua : Kering-Berlumpur-Berair

Panjang Total Gua : ± 1200 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Letak Administratif : Dusun Ta’deang, Desa Samanggi Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Ta’deang (Rp. 5.000-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3 jam.

Base Camp : Ta’deang, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan Kapolres Maros).

Sumber Air : Sungai Pattunnuang

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

5. Gua Hamid

Jenis Gua : Horisontal

Kondisi Gua : Kering

Panjang Total Gua : ± 500 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Letak Administratif : Dusun Ta’deang, Desa Samanggi Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Ta’deang (Rp. 5.000-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3 jam.

Base Camp : Ta’deang, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan Kapolres Maros).

Sumber Air : Sungai Pattunnuang

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

6. Gua Anjing

Jenis Gua : Horisontal

Kondisi Gua : Berlumpur-Berair

Panjang Total Gua : ± 400 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Letak Administratif : Dusun Ta’deang, Desa Samanggi Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Ta’deang (Rp. 5.000-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3 jam.

Base Camp : Bislab, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan Kapolres Maros).

Sumber Air : Sungai Pattunnuang

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

7. Gua Saloaja

Jenis Gua : Horisontal

Kondisi Gua : Berair

Panjang Total Gua : ± 800 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Letak Administratif : Dusun Pattunuang, Desa Samanggi Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Pattunuang (Rp. 5.000-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3 jam.

Base Camp : Bislab, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan Kapolres Maros).

Sumber Air : Sungai Pattunnuang

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

8. Gua Kharisma

Jenis Gua : Horisontal

Kondisi Gua : Kering

Panjang Total Gua : ± 330 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Letak Administratif : Dusun Kappang, Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Kappang (Rp. 6.500-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3,5 jam.

Base Camp : Kappang, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan Kapolres Maros).

Sumber Air : Mata Air, Km. 58

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

9. Gua Saleh

Jenis Gua : Horisontal

Kondisi Gua : Kering

Panjang Total Gua : ± 300 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Letak Administratif : Desa Pangia, Kec. Simbang

Peta Topografi : Bakosurtanal, Lembar 2010-63, Maros

Transportasi : Makassar-Pangia (Rp. 6.000-/orang)

Waktu tempuh : ± 3 jam.

Base Camp : Leang Rakko, Maros

Perizinan : Kesbang Provinsi Sul-Sel, Polda Sul-Sel (tembusan ke Kesbang Maros dan Kapolres Maros).

Jalur medis terdekat : Puskesmas Bantimurung

Adat istiadat : Semua yang dilarang oleh agama

10 Gua Pamelakang Tedong (Tempat Pembuangan Kerbau)

Panjang Total : 151,11 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Kondisi Gua : Berair.

Ketinggian : ± 25 m dpl

Letak Administratif : Dusun Bellae, Desa Biraeng, Kec. Perwakilan Minasatene.Kabupaten Pangkep

Jalur Medis Terdekat : Puskesmas Setempat

11. Gua Katalangang Erea I (Gua Yang Tegelam)

Panjang Total : 188,01 meter

Jenis Batuan : Gamping

Kondisi Gua : Berair.

Letak Administratif : Dusun Bellae, Desa Biraeng, Kec. Perwakilan Minasatene.Kabupaten Pangkep.

Akses ke Lokasi : Berada pada tebing yang berjarak ± 1,5 km dari jalan raya.

12. Gua Loko Tojolo (Gua Orang-orang Dulu)

Letak Administratif : Dusun Buntu Kayan, Desa Sumilan, Kecamatan Alla, Kabupaten Enrekang.

Kwasan Karst : Enrekang

Gunung Terdekat : Buttu Kayan

Akses ke Lokasi : Dari Sudu ke Cece (dgn kendaraan) menuju ke Sumilan. Dari Desa Sumilan menuju Buttu Kayan (jalan kaki).

Gua horizontal (panjang) : meter

Gua vertikal (dalam) : meter

Bahaya Penelusuran Gua : Licin

13. Gua Rabun (Gua Kematian)

Letak Administratif : Dusun Tangsa, Desa Benteng Alla, Kecamatan Alla, Kabupaten Enrekang.

Kawasan Karst : Enrekang

Gunung Terdekat : Buttu Alla

Akses ke Lokasi : Dari Sudu ke Desa Tangsa (dgn kendaraan) menuju ke lokasi gua (Benteng Alla).

Derajat kesulitan : Sedang

Pencaharian rakyat : Petani, Pedagang dijadikan sebagai kuburan Termasuk gua kering.

Sedimen Gua : Tanah

Kerusakan gua yaitu : Pembakaran.

Runway

A runway (RWY) is a strip of land on an airport, on which aircraft can take off and land. Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, or gravel).

Orientation and Dimention

Runways are generally numbered according to their magnetic heading (the takeoff direction it is “pointing towards”). The runway number is the whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north. Each digit is pronounced separately for clarity in radio communications. For example, Runway Three Six would be aligned in roughly a 360 degrees direction (i.e. magnetic north), Runway Nine would be used for a runway with a 94 degree-alignment (i.e. close to magnetic east), and Runway One Seven for 168 degrees. Each runway can be used in either direction, and hence has two numbers, each 180° apart. Thus, Runway One Zero (100°) becomes Runway Two Eight (280°) when used in the opposite direction and Runway One Eight (180°) becomes Runway Three Six (360°). Runways in North America that lie within the Northern Domestic Airspace are, because of the magnetic north pole, usually numbered according to true north.

In International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and some United States military (such as Edwards Air Force Base) airports, numbers for runways less than 100° include the leading “zero”, e.g. Runway Zero Two or Runway Zero One Left. However in the United States at most civil aviation airports, numbers for runways less than 100° are often given as single digits; e.g. Runway Nine or Runway Four Right, this also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield.

If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by appending Left (L), Center (C) and Right (R) to the number — for example, Runways One Five Left (15L), One Five Center (15C), and One Five Right (15R). Runway Zero Two Left (02L) becomes Runway Two Zero Right (20R) when used in the opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the original number for the 180 degrees when approaching from the opposite direction).

At large airports with more than three parallel runways (for example, at Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles, California, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport in Romulus, Michigan or Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport in Atlanta, Georgia), some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. In Los Angeles, this system results in Runways Six Left, Six Right, Seven Left, and Seven Right, even though all four runways are exactly parallel (approximately 69 degrees).

For fixed-wing aircraft it is advantageous to perform take-offs and landings into the wind to reduce takeoff roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed. Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that one can be selected that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind.

Runway dimensions vary from as small as 800 ft (244 m) long and 25 ft (8 m) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to 18,000 ft (5,486 m) long and 250 ft (76 m) wide at large international airports built to accommodate large passenger jets. Runway dimensions can be measured in feet or in meters depending on location in the world.

Placement and grouping

Two runways pointing in the exact same direction are classed as dual or parallel runways depending on the separation distance. In some countries, flight rules mandate that only one runway may be used at a time under certain conditions (usually adverse weather) if the parallel runways are too close to each other.

Declared and distances

TORA

Takeoff Run Available - The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.

TODA

Takeoff Distance Available - The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway, where provided (the clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary. According to JAR TODA is the lesser of TORA plus clearway or 1.5 times TORA).

ASDA

Accelerate Stop Distance Available - The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway, where provided.

LDA

Landing Distance Available - The length of runway which is declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.

“Sections” of a runway

• The Runway Strip is the cleared, grassy area around the paved runway. It is kept free from any obstacles that might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft, although the grass is not always necessarily in good condition. The grass is often marked with white cones or gables.

• The Runway is the entire paved surface, which typically features threshold markings, numbers, centerlines, and overrun areas at both ends.

• Blast pads, also known as overrun areas or stopways, are often constructed just before the start of a runway where jet blast produced by large planes during the takeoff roll could otherwise erode the ground and eventually damage the runway. Overrun areas are also constructed at the end of runways as emergency space to slowly stop planes that overrun the runway on a landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on an aborted take-off or a take-off gone wrong. Blast pads are often not as strong as the main paved surface of the runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes are not allowed to taxi, take-off or land on blast pads, except in an emergency.

The Displaced threshold is the point at the end of the runway. In major airports, it is usually marked with white paint arrows that lead up to the displaced threshold (see diagram). Smaller runways may not have markings to indicate the displaced threshold. A displaced threshold may be used for taxiing and takeoff but not for landing, because obstacles just before the runway, runway strength, or noise restrictions may make the area unsuitable for landings.

Technical specifications

Runway lighting is used at airports which allow night landings. Seen from the air, runway lights form an outline of the runway. A particular runway may have some or all of the following.

• Runway End Identification Lights (REIL) Unidirectional (facing approach direction) or omnidirectional pair of synchronized flashing lights installed at the runway threshold, one on each side.

• Runway end lights A pair of four lights on each side of the runway On precision instrument runways, these lights extend along the full width of the runway. These lights show green when viewed by approaching aircraft and red when seen from the runway.

• Runway Edge Lights White elevated run the length of the runway on either side. On precision instrument runways, the edge-lighting becomes yellow in the last 2,000 ft (610 m) of the runway. Taxiways are differentiated by being bordered by blue lights, or by having green centre lights, depending on the width of the taxiway, and the complexity of the taxi pattern.

• Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS) Lights embedded into surface of the runway at 50 ft (15 m) intervals along the runway centerline on some precision instrument runways. White except last 3,000 ft (914 m), alternate white and red for next 2,000 ft (610 m) and red for last 1,000 ft (305 m).

• Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL) This consists of rows of white light bars (with three in each row) on either side of the centerline over the first 3,000 ft (914 m) (or to the midpoint, whichever is less) of the runway.

• Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights Installed along lead-off markings, alternate green and yellow lights embedded into runway pavement. It starts with green light about runway centerline to the position of first centerline light beyond holding position on taxiway.

• Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights Installed same way as Taxiway centerline Lead-Off Lights.

• Land and Hold Short Lights A row of white pulsating lights installed across the runway to indicate hold short position on some runways which are facilitating LAHSO operations.

• Approach Lighting System or ALS, is a lighting system installed on the approach end of an airport runway and consists of a series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a combination of the two that extends outward from the runway end.

According to Transport Canada‘s regulations, the runway-edge lighting must be visible for at least 2 miles (3 kilometres). Additionally, a new system of advisory lighting, Runway Status Lights, is currently being tested in the United States.

The edge lights must be arranged such that:

• the minimum distance between lines is 75 ft (23 m), and maximum is 200 ft (61 m);

• the maximum distance between lights within each line is 200 ft (61 m);

• the minimum length of parallel lines is 1,400 ft (427 m);

• the minimum number of lights in the line is 8.[1]

Control of Lighting System Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower, a Flight Service Station or another designated authority. Some airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones) are equipped with Pilot Controlled Lighting, so that pilots can temporarily turn on the lights when the relevant authority is not available. This avoids the need for automatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This also avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. Smaller airports may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private airfields for light planes, there may be nothing more than a windsock beside a landing strip.

 

 

 

 

 

Runway markings

There are various runway markings and signs on any given runway. Larger runways have a distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to indicate the thousands of feet remaining, so 7 will indicate 7,000 ft (2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights.

There are three types of runways:

• Visual Runways are used at small airstrips, visual runways are usually just a strip of grass, gravel, asphalt or concrete. Although there are usually no markings on a visual runway they may have threshold markings, designators, and centerlines. Additionally, they do not provide an instrument-based landing procedure; pilots must be able to see the runway to use it. Also, radio communication may not be available and pilots must be self-reliant.

• Non-precision instrument runways are often used at small-medium size airports. These runways, depending on the surface, may be marked with threshold markings, designators, centerlines, and sometimes a 1,000 ft (305 m) mark (known as an aiming point, sometimes installed at 1,500 ft (457 m)). They provide horizontal position guidance to planes on instrument approach via Non-directional beacon (NDB), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR), Global Positioning System, etc.

• Precision instrument runways, which are found at medium and large size airports, consist of a blast pad/stopway (optional, for airports handling jets), threshold, designator, centerline, aiming point, and 500 ft (152 m), 1,000 ft (305 m)/1,500 ft (457 m), 2,000 ft (610 m), 2,500 ft (762 m), and 3,000 ft (914 m) touchdown zone marks. Precision runways provide both horizontal and vertical guidance for instrument approaches.

National variants

• In Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, as well as some other countries all 3-stripe and 2-stripe touchdown zones for precision runways are replaced with one-stripe touchdown zones.

• In Australia, precision runways consist of only one 1-stripe touchdown zone, aiming point, and one 1-stripe touchdown zone. Furthermore, all non-precision and visual runways lack an aiming point.

• Some European countries replace the aiming point with a 3-stripe touchdown zone.

• Runways in Norway have yellow markings instead of the usual white ones. This also occurs on some airports in Japan.

• Runways may have different types on each end. To cut costs, many airports do not install precision guidance equipment on both ends. Runways with one Precision end and any other type of end can install the full set of touchdown zones, even if some are past the midpoint. If a runway has Precision markings on both ends, touchdown zones within 900 ft (274 m) of the midpoint are omitted, to avoid pilot confusion over which end the marking belongs to.

Pavement

The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the local ground conditions. Generally speaking, for a major airport, where the ground conditions permit, the most satisfactory type of pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is concrete. Although certain airports have used reinforcement in concrete pavements, this is generally found to be unnecessary, with the exception of expansion joints across the runway where a dowel assembly, which permits relative movement of the concrete slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where it can be anticipated, because of unstable ground conditions, that major settlements of the runway will occur over the years, it is preferable to install asphaltic concrete surface, as it is easier to patch on a periodic basis. For fields with very low traffic of light planes, it is possible to use a sod surface.

The development of the pavement design proceeds along a number of paths. Exploratory borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based upon relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, different pavement specifications are established. Typically, for heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from as little as 10 inches (25 centimetres) to as much as 4 ft (1 m), including subgrade.

Historically, airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard, is based upon the assumption that the pavement is an elastic plate supported on a heavy fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value. Experience has shown that the K values upon which the formula was developed are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures.

The second method is called the California bearing ratio and was developed in the late 1940s. It is anextrapolation of the original test results, which are not applicable to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear. Some designs were predicated upon melding of these two design theories; they are empirical in nature and are not reliable. Another, more recent, method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle response as an important design parameter. Essentially it takes into account all factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in the construction, and, especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using the landing area.

Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, every effort is made to minimize the stresses imparted to the pavement by aircraft. Manufacturers of the larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of the landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized. However, in the final analysis, if plane weights continue to increase as they have in the past, it will be necessary to provide substantially stronger pavements than those that are generally in use in Europe and the United States. Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is suitably bonded to the original slab.

Posttensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life. Because of the susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave, this process is generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action.

Pavement surface

Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximise friction for wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with the aircraft tires.

Active runway

FAA airport diagram at O’Hare International Airport. From left to right, runways 14/32 slant down, runways 4/22 slant up, and runways 9/27 are horizontal.

The active runway is the runway at an airport that is in current use for takeoffs and landings. Since takeoffs and landings are usually done as close to “into the wind” as possible, wind direction generally determines the active runway (or just the active in aviation slang).

Selection of the active runway, however, depends on a number of factors. At a non-towered airport, pilots usually select the runway most nearly aligned with the wind, but they are not obliged to use that particular runway. For example, a pilot arriving from the east may elect to land straight in to an east-west runway despite a minor tailwind or significant crosswind, in order to expedite his arrival, although it is recommended to always fly a regular traffic pattern to more safely merge with other aircraft.

At controlled airports, the active is usually determined by a tower supervisor. However, there may be constraints, such as policy from the airport manager (calm wind runway selection, for example, or noise abatement guidelines) that dictate an active runway selection that isn’t the one most nearly aligned with the wind.

At major airports with multiple runways, the active could be any of a number of runways. For example, when O’Hare (ORD) is landing on 27R and 32L, departures use 27L and 32R, thus making four active runways. When they’re landing on 14R and 22R, departures use 22L and 9L, and occasionally a third arrival runway, 14L, will be employed, bringing the active runway count to five.

At major airports, the active runway is based on existing weather conditions (visibility and ceiling, as well as wind, and runway conditions such as wet/dry or snow covered), efficiency (ORD can land more aircraft on 14R-22R than they can on 27R-32L), traffic demand (when a heavy departure rush is scheduled, a runway configuration that optimizes departures vs arrivals may be desirable), and time of day (ORD is obliged to use Runway 9L/27R during the hours of roughly midnight to 6 a.m. due to noise abatement).

An attempt to land at an active runway that fails and either leaves the runway path or overshoots is called a runway excursion.

Longest runways

Although runway length may be of some academic interest, in terms of usability for air carrier operations, a runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,829 m) in length is usually adequate for aircraft weights below approximately 200,000 pounds (90,718 kilogrammes). Larger aircraft including widebodies (Boeing 747, 767, 777, and 787 ); Airbus A310, A340, A330, A350, and A380; McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 or MD-11; and the Lockheed L1011) will usually require at least 8,000 ft (2,438 m) at sea level and somewhat more at higher altitude airports. International widebody flights may also have landing requirements of 10,000 ft (3,048 m) or more and takeoff requirements of 13,000 ft (3,962 m)+ ft.

At sea level, 10,000 ft (3,048 m) can be considered an adequate length to accommodate virtually any aircraft. For example, at O’Hare International Airport, when landing simultaneously on 22R and 27L or parallel 27R, it is routine for arrivals from the Far East which would normally be vectored for 22R (7,500 ft) or 27R (8,000 ft (2,438 m)) to request 27L (10,000 ft (3,048 m)). It is always accommodated, although occasionally with a delay.

 

Approach Lighting System (ALS)

An approach lighting system, or ALS, is a lighting system installed on the approach end of an airport runway and consists of a series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a combination of the two that extends outward from the runway end. ALS usually serves a runway that has an instrument approach procedure (IAP) associated with it and allows the pilot to visually identify the runway environment once he or she has arrived at a prescribed point on an approach. The runway lighting is controlled by the air traffic control tower. At uncontrolled airports, Pilot Controlled Lighting may be installed which can be switched on by the pilot via radio. In both cases, the brightness of the lights can be adjusted for day and night operations.

A key ingredient of all Approach Lighting Systems in the US is the Decision Bar. The Decision Bar is always located 1000′ from the threshold, and it serves as a visible horizon to ease the transition from instrument flight to visual flight. It also is situated such that at Decision Altitude, the Decision Bar is just appearing to pass under the cowling of the plane.

Approach Light Systems are designed such that they allow the pilot to quickly and positively identify visibility distances in Instrument Meteorological Conditions. For example, if the aircraft is at the Middle Marker, and the Middle Marker is located 3600′ from the threshold, the Decision Bar is 2600′ ahead. If the procedure calls for at least 1/2 statute mile flight visibility (roughly 2600′), spotting the Decision Bar at the marker would indicate enough flight visibility to continue the procedure. In addition, the shorter bars before and after the Decision Bar are spaced either 100′ or 200′ apart depending on the ALS type. The number of short bars the pilot can see can be used to determine flight visibility. Approaches with lower minimums use the more precision 100′ spacing systems for more accurate identification of visibility.

Several ALS configurations are recognized by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO); however, non-standard ALS configurations are installed at some airports. Typically, approach lighting systems are of high-intensity. Many approach lighting systems are also complemented by various on-runway light systems, such as Runway End Identification Lights (REIL), Touchdown Zone Lighting (TDZL), and High-Intensity Runway Edge Lights (HIRL). The most common approach light system configurations include:

• MALSR: Medium-intensity approach light system with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights

• MALSF: Medium-intensity approach light system with Sequenced Flashers

• SALS: Short approach light system

• SSALS: Simplified Short approach light system

• SSALR: Simplified Short approach light system with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights

• SSALF: Simplified Short approach light system with Sequenced Flashers

• ODALS: Omnidirectional approach light system

• ALSF-1: Approach light system configuration 1

• ALSF-2: Approach light system configuration 2

• CALVERT I/ICAO-1: ICAO-compliant configuration 1

• CALVERT II/ICAO-2: ICAO-compliant configuration 2

• LDIN: Lead-in lighting

Aircraft Marshalling

Aircraft marshalling is a method of visual signalling between ground personnel and pilots on an airport, aircraft carrier or helipad.

As opposed to radio communications between the aircraft and air traffic control, marshalling is a one-on-one visual communication and a vital part of aircraft ground handling. The usual attire of a marshaller is a reflecting safety vest, a helmet with acoustic earmuffs, and illuminated beacons or gloves.

On airports, the marshaller signals the pilot to keep turning, slow down, stop, and shut down engines, leading the aircraft safely to its parking stand or, in some cases, to the runway. Sometimes, the marshaller indicates the first directions to the pilot by driving a “Follow-Me” car (usually a yellow minivan with a checkerboard pattern) prior to disembarking and resuming signalling. This, however, is not an industry standard.

On aircraft carriers or helipads, marshallers also have the ability to give take-off and landing clearances to aircraft and helicopters, where the very limited space and time between take-offs and landings makes radio communications a difficult altern